The physical and chemical history of carbon family -- graphene, graphene, soccerene, etc

Carbon is a nonmetallic element in the second periodic family of IVA. Carbonium, Latin for "coal, charcoal". Carbon is a very common element. It is widely found in the atmosphere, crust and living things in many forms. Carbon has long been recognized and used, a series of carbon compounds - organic is the fundamental life. Carbon is one of the ingredients of pig iron, wrought iron, and steel. Carbon can chemically self-bind to form large Numbers of compounds that are biologically and commercially important molecules. Most molecules in living organisms contain carbon, which exists as both free elements (diamond, graphite, etc.) and compounds (mainly calcium, magnesium and other electropositive elements of carbonate). It exists as carbon dioxide, a small but extremely important component of the atmosphere. The total abundance of carbon in crustal rocks is expected to vary widely.

The diamond comes from the volcanic tubule fire conglomerate (volcanic tubule). It is embedded in a soft, dark alkaline rock called "blue earth" or "igneous rock containing diamonds". In 1870, such a volcanic tubule was first discovered in the city of jimboli, South Africa. [10] with the change of geological time, a diamond can be found in the erosion of gravel and beach by the weathering and corrosion of volcanic cylinder. The original mode of diamond crystallization is still an active research topic nowadays. The content of diamond in a typical diamond volcanic cylinder is extremely low, the order of magnitude of which is 1/5 million. Minerals must be separated by mechanical methods such as crushing and elutriation and pass through the belt coated with ointment, on which the diamond will stick. To some extent, this explains the extremely high price of gem-grade diamonds. In-ground conditions, it is rare for an element to go from one place to another. So the amount of carbon on earth is an effective constant. The flow of carbon in nature constitutes the carbon cycle. For example, plants take carbon dioxide from the environment to store biomass energy, such as carbon respiration and the Calvin cycle (a process of carbon fixation). Some biomass is transferred by predation, and some carbon is exhaled by animals in the form of carbon dioxide. The structure of the carbon cycle is much more complicated than the schematic diagram on the right. For example, some carbon dioxide will dissolve in the ocean, and the remains of dead plants or animals may form coal, oil and natural gas, which can be released by burning, but bacteria cannot use them.

allotropy

Diamond carbon

Some allotropes of carbon

Some allotropes of carbon

Natural in the form of anthracite (a type of coal), graphite and diamonds, historically more readily available as ash or charcoal. Eventually, these different materials are thought to be made of the same elements. Not surprisingly, diamonds are the hardest to identify. Naturalist Giuseppe peaverani from Florence and medical worker CiprianoTargioni first discovered that diamonds can be destroyed by heating. In 1694 they used a large magnifying glass to focus sunlight on the diamond, and the stone eventually disappeared. Pierre-joseph noun and godefroylle taneuse repeated the experiment in 1771. Later, in 1796, the British chemist Smithson Tennant showed that only CO2 was produced when it was burned and proved that diamonds were only a form of carbon. (a structure is shown in figure a)

Diamond is the most solid carbon structure, in which carbon atoms are arranged in the form of the crystal structure. Each carbon atom is closely bonded with the other four carbon atoms, forming a spatial network structure, and finally forming a solid with high hardness and low activity. Diamond of high boiling point, melting of more than 3500 ℃, melting point is equal to the surface temperature of some stars. In a diamond molecule, each carbon atom is surrounded by four other carbon atoms. These carbon atoms are connected together with strong binding force to form a huge molecule, so the diamond is very hard. Diamond is an insulator. Use is to make adornment, bit material to wait.

Graphite is a dark gray metallic luster and opaque fine - scale - like solid. Graphite belongs to mixed crystal, which has both the properties of the atomic crystal and molecular crystal. Soft, greasy, with excellent electrical conductivity. High melting and boiling point. Each carbon atom in the graphite molecule bonds with only three other carbon atoms by a strong force, forming a lamellar structure. The lamellar binding force is small so graphite can be used as a lubricant. It is used for making pencils, electrodes, tram cables, etc. (a structure is shown in figure b)

Soccerene was discovered in 1985 by scientists at Texas Ross university in the United States. There are 60 C atoms in a molecule of C60, forming 32 faces, 20 regular hexagons, and 12 regular pentagons. The carbon atoms in fullerenes are bonded together in spherical domes. (structure as shown in figured,e,f) is a molecular crystal with low melting and boiling point, low hardness and insulation.

Lonsdaleite (which has the same bond type as diamond, but the atoms are arranged in a hexagonal shape, also known as a hexagonal diamond) (a structure is shown in figure c)

[Chaoite, which is produced when graphite collides with meteorites and has atoms arranged in a hexagonal pattern]

Schwarzite (a hypothetical structure in which the hexagonal layers are twisted into a saddle of "negative curvature" due to the presence of a heptagon) carbon fiber (Filamentouscarbon)

Carbonaerogels (Carbonaerogels)

Carbonnanofoam (spider web, fractal structure, density 1% of carbon aerogel, ferromagnetic) [9]

Graphene is a two-dimensional crystal. The biggest characteristic of graphene is that the electrons move at a speed of 1/300 of the speed of light, much faster than the electrons in ordinary conductors. This makes electrons in graphene, or more accurately, "charge carriers", very similar to relativistic neutrinos. The common graphite is formed by stacking layers of planar carbon atoms in a honeycomb orderly arrangement. The interlayer force of graphite is weak and it is easy to peel off each other to form graphite sheets. When a sheet of graphite is stripped down to a single layer, one atom thick, it is graphene.

Amorphous carbon (Amorphous, not really heteromorphic, but graphite) (see figure g)

Chemical editing

elemental

Element property data

Element property data

It burns in oxygen

Intense exothermic, dazzling white light, produce colorless tasteless calcium hydroxide solution (clear lime water) turbid gas

Chemical equation:

C+O2== ignition ==CO2 (chemical reaction)

Burn in the air

Exothermic, continuous red heat, produce colorless and odorless calcium hydroxide solution (clarified lime water) turbid gas CO2; Carbon monoxide is produced when combustion is insufficient, that is, oxygen quantity is insufficient:

Chemical equation when oxygen is sufficient:

C+O2== ignition ==CO2 (chemical reaction)

Chemical equation when oxygen is insufficient:

2C+O2== ignition ==2CO (chemical reaction)

As a reducing agent

As a reducing agent, carbon has similar chemical properties to hydrogen and carbon monoxide (but different products), and can be reduced from metal oxides.

Carbon reduced copper oxide:

C+2CuO== high temperature ==2Cu+CO2 (substitution reaction)

Carbon reduced iron oxide:

3C+2Fe2O3== high temperature ==4Fe+3CO2 reaction (displacement reaction)

Carbon dioxide reduction:

C+CO2== high temperature ==2CO (chemical reaction)

But the carbon heats up in the sealed space with potassium permanganate, which breaks down oxygen, and the carbon quickly oxidizes and explodes.

Reaction with strong oxidizing acid:

C+2H2SO4(concentrated) == heating ==CO2 +2SO2 +2H2O

C+4HNO3 (concentrated) == heating ==CO2 4NO2 +2H2O

The stability of

Carbon is stable under "normal temperature" and is not easy to react. Therefore, famous ancient paintings can be preserved in modern times, and carbon ink should be used to write archives [9].

compound

Among the compounds of carbon, only the following compounds belong to inorganic substances: carbon oxides, carbides, sulfur compounds of carbon, carbon disulfide (CS2), carbonates, bicarbonates, cyanogens and a series of pseudo-halogens and their quasi-halogenates, pseudo-halogenates, such as cyanogen [(CN)2], cyanogen [(OCN)2], cyanogen [(SCN)2], and other carbon-containing compounds are all organic compounds.

Since the bonds formed by carbon atoms are relatively stable, the number and arrangement of carbon in organic compounds, as well as the types and positions of substituents, are highly random, which leads to the phenomenon that the number of organic compounds is extremely large, and most of the compounds discovered by modern people are organic compounds. Organic substances are quite different from inorganic substances in nature. They are generally combustible and not easily soluble in water. The reaction mechanism is complex and has formed an independent branch -- organic chemistry. [11]

Make method edit

diamond

Global diamond production in 2005

Global diamond production in 2005

The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of entitled trading groups and is highly concentrated in a very small area of the world. Only a very small number of deposits have any real value. Care must be taken during the crushing of the ore to prevent breakage of the diamonds in the process and the diamonds are then sequenced according to their density. Until the present day, when diamonds were graded by X - ray, the final sorting process was done by hand. Before X-ray manipulation became commonplace, the separation was done on a belt coated with ointment, and diamonds held together better than other minerals. [14]

graphite

Commercially valuable graphite deposits are found around the world, but the most important economic sources are in China, India, Brazil, and North Korea. In Borrowdale, David kotok, England graphite deposit is first to achieve enough size and purity, before the 19th century, pencil by simply the natural graphite with a wood saw blade into packages. After the 21st century, small graphite deposits were obtained by comminution of the parent rock and surface of lightweight graphite

Application domain editing

Carbon is indispensable to all known living systems, without which life cannot exist.

The main economic use of carbon other than food and wood is in the form of hydrocarbons (most notably oil and natural gas). Crude oil is produced by the petrochemical industry in refineries through a fractionation process for the production of other commodities, including gasoline and kerosene.

Cellulose is a natural carbon-containing polymer obtained from cotton, hemp, flax, and other plants. The primary role of cellulose in plants is to maintain the structure of the plant. Commercially valuable polymers derived from animals include polymers of wool, cashmere, silk, etc., that are carbon, and often nitrogen and oxygen atoms that are regularly arranged on the backbone of the polymer.

Carbon and its compounds are diverse. Carbon can also form alloys with iron, most commonly carbon steel; Graphite can also be used as a lubricant and pigment. It can also be used as a molding material for glass manufacturing. Graphite is used for electrodes, electroplating, electroforming, electric motors and brushes. Coke can be used in grilling, drafting materials and ironmaking; Gem-grade diamonds are used as jewelry, industrial diamonds are used for drilling, cutting and polishing, and as tools for processing stones and metals.

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